In Western cultures (e.g., the United States), specific writing practices are expected when using sources, including giving credit to others. Western cultures are considered cultures of 'ownership', meaning that the culture cares about retaining ownership of ideas. This is called intellectual property, or ownership of information from the moment of creation.
In Western academic writing, if a writer uses another writer's ideas, words, or creations, the writer must state clearly in some manner that they belong to someone else. When a writer uses someone else's intellectual property, but the writer does not give the original author credit, this is called plagiarism.
However, different cultures have different perspectives on plagiarism. To understand this and the different cultural perspectives, we can look at the relationship between three cultural concepts: cultural behavior types, cultural usage of information, and cultural trust in society.
What sources are used in writing practices
How sources are used in writing practices
How sources are cited, referred to, or credited
How sources are used in writing relates to cultural patterns in communication behavior. To understand cross-cultural differences, social theorist Richard Lewis created a model for classifying these differences based on country characteristics. Below, a summary of these characteristics is presented along with how they translate into using sources in writing:
Cultural Behavior Figure 1. Colour coding of the three cultural types: linear-active, multi-active, and reactive (Lewis, 2006). Relation to Writing Linear-Active Cultures: cool, factual, decisive planners [e.g., English, German] Multi-Active Cultures: warm, emotional, loquacious, impulsive [e.g., Hispanic, Slavic] Reactive Cultures:compromiser, amiable, courteous [e.g., Chinese, Japanese] Use facts, figures, data, and individual opinions Prefer linear writing structure organization Favor a direct, logical approach over an emotional approach Use personal anecdotes, relationships between ideas Prefer flexible writing organization with interruptions Favor a humanized, emotional approach over a logical approach Use reactions to others' positions and group consensus Prefer circular writing structure organization Favor diplomatic and collectivist approach before facts and opinions e.g., a native English writer prefers to use 'hard' data in writing—including academic research, statistics, and direct arguments—whereas a Spanish writer may prefer to use personal sources in writing—including memories, personal anecdotes, and emotional reasoning. Meanwhile, a Chinese writer may avoid direct reference to sources and focus on the reader's opinions and feelings.
Figure 1. Colour coding of the three cultural types: linear-active, multi-active, and reactive (Lewis, 2006).
Now that we have reviewed what type of sources are used in writing across different cultures, we turn to how those sources are used in writing. There are three styles of culturally informed information usage according to Lewis (2006): Data-Oriented, Dialogue-Oriented, and Listening Cultures. Below, a graphic representation of which cultures align to which information styles is presented along with an explanation of how it relates to writing practices. Cultural Usage of Information Figure 2. A scale of the most Dialogue-Oriented cultures to Data-Oriented cultures (Lewis, 2006). Relation to Writing Data-Oriented Cultures: researchers, focus on fine data [e.g., English, German] Dialogue-Oriented Cultures: humanists, focus on big picture [e.g., Hispanic, Arabic, Slavic] Listening Cultures: harmonizers, focus on unity [e.g., Chinese, Japanese] Seeks information through research Focuses on fine-points to prove an overall argument Primary information sources: colleagues, reading, databases, reports Seeks information through conversation and contact with others Focuses on the broader implications Primary information sources: family, relatives, acquaintances, peers, reading, work colleagues, school friends Seeks information through both official sources and familial sources Focuses on listening to the other side Primary information sources: database, relatives, newspapers, social circle, other side e.g., a native English writer will conduct peer-reviewed research and discuss the fine points of an argument, a Hispanic writer may focus on the overall significance of the argument to the people involved, using personal stores, and a Japanese writer may provide information fairly from all sides of the argument, using a mixture of personal and database sources.
Now that we have reviewed what type of sources are used in writing across different cultures, we turn to how those sources are used in writing. There are three styles of culturally informed information usage according to Lewis (2006): Data-Oriented, Dialogue-Oriented, and Listening Cultures. Below, a graphic representation of which cultures align to which information styles is presented along with an explanation of how it relates to writing practices.
Figure 2. A scale of the most Dialogue-Oriented cultures to Data-Oriented cultures (Lewis, 2006).
The final cultural aspect presented here that affects the usage of sources in writing is the differentiation between High-Trust and Low-Trust Societies. High-Trust Societies have the expectation that all members of the cultural group are rule-followers. Low-Trust Societies have a more flexible perspective of the rules of a culture, creating inherent suspicion of others within the culture and trust only in close-knit relationships (e.g., family, friends, life time colleagues). Typically, Linear-Active Cultures are High-Trust Societies, and Multi-Active Cultures are Low-Trust Societies. Reactive Cultures can be either High-Trust or Low-Trust based on their desire for rule-following (e.g., a desire to follow the rules = High-Trust societies and a desire for more flexible rules = Low-Trust societies). Here are lists of example High-Trust and Low-Trust Societies:
The final cultural aspect presented here that affects the usage of sources in writing is the differentiation between High-Trust and Low-Trust Societies. High-Trust Societies have the expectation that all members of the cultural group are rule-followers. Low-Trust Societies have a more flexible perspective of the rules of a culture, creating inherent suspicion of others within the culture and trust only in close-knit relationships (e.g., family, friends, life time colleagues).
Typically, Linear-Active Cultures are High-Trust Societies, and Multi-Active Cultures are Low-Trust Societies. Reactive Cultures can be either High-Trust or Low-Trust based on their desire for rule-following (e.g., a desire to follow the rules = High-Trust societies and a desire for more flexible rules = Low-Trust societies). Here are lists of example High-Trust and Low-Trust Societies:
High-Trust Societies
Low-Trust Societies
Figure 3. The basis of trust in linear-active, multi-active, and reactive cultures (Lewis, 2006).
Relation to Writing Linear-Active/Data-Oriented Cultures: high-trust, institution-oriented [e.g., English, German] Multi-Active/Dialogue-Oriented Cultures:low-trust, in-group-oriented[e.g., Hispanic, Arabic, Slavic] Reactive/Listening Cultures: high & low trust, reciprocity-oriented [e.g., Chinese, Japanese] Expects adherence to rules and respect for institutions of authority and their members Trusts: consistency, scientific-based evidence, performance Sources: must be cited to respect members of the institution and academic rules Expects flexibility in rules and respect for in-group relationships Trusts: compassion, closeness, showing one's own weakness while not capitalizing on others' weaknesses Sources: should be cited but with options for flexibility - they may be cited if relevant or indicating closeness with the source for the author's alignment Expects collective respect of the culture's values over personal desire Trusts: protecting face, courtesy, personal sacrifice, reciprocity Sources: do not need to be cited if they compromise someone's face or a cultural value (e.g., compromising the author's intelligence or the opposing party's comfort) e.g., a native English writer will conduct peer-reviewed research and discuss the fine points of an argument, a Hispanic writer may focus on the overall significance of the argument to the people involved, using personal stores, and a Japanese writer may provide information fairly from all sides of the argument, using a mixture of personal and database sources.
Combining the types of cultural behavior, information usage, and trust, here is a summary of three types of culture and how their writing styles are culturally informed: